1. UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

Measurement of any physical quantity involves comparison with a certain basic, arbitrarily chosen, internationally accepted reference standard called unit. The result of a measurement of a physical quantity is expressed by a number (or numerical measure) accompanied by a unit. Although the number of physical quantities appears to be very large, we need only a limited number of units for expressing all the physical quantities, since they are interrelated with one another. The units for the fundamental or base quantities are called fundamental or base units. The units of all other physical quantities can be expressed as combinations of the base units. Such units obtained for the derived quantities are called derived units. A complete set of these units, both the base units and derived units, is known as the system of units.

1.1 > INTRODUCTION

1.2 >THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

The base units for length, mass and time in these systems were as follows :

• In CGS system they were centimetre, gram and second respectively.

• In FPS system they were foot, pound and second respectively.

• In MKS system they were metre, kilogram and second respectively.

The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is the Système Internationale d’ Unites (French for International System of Units), abbreviated as SI. The SI, with standard scheme of symbols,

As discussed above, every measurement involves errors. Thus, the result of measurement should be reported in a way that indicates the precision of measurement. Normally, the reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits in the number that are known reliably plus the first digit that is uncertain. The reliable digits plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant digits or significant figures. If we say the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is 1.62 s, the digits 1 and 6 are reliable and certain, while the digit 2 is uncertain. Thus, the measured value has three significant figures. The length of an object reported after measurement to be 287.5 cm has four significant figures, the digits 2, 8, 7 are certain while the digit 5 is uncertain. Clearly, reporting the result of measurement that includes more digits than the significant digits is superfluous and also misleading since it would give a wrong idea about the precision of measurement.

1.3 >SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

1.4 >DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions. All the physical quantities represented by derived units can be expressed in terms of some combination of seven fundamental or base quantities. We shall call these base quantities as the seven dimensions of the physical world, which are denoted with square brackets [ ]. Thus, length has the dimension [L], mass [M], time [T], electric current [A], thermodynamic temperature [K], luminous intensity [cd], and amount of substance [mol]. The dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the base quantities are raised to represent that quantity.

1.5 >DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE AND DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represent the dimensions of a physical quantity is called the dimensional formula of the given physical quantity. For example, the dimensional formula of the volume is [M° L3 T°], and that of speed or velocity is [M° L T-1]. Similarly, [M° L T–2] is the dimensional formula of acceleration and [M L–3 T°] that of mass density. An equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional formula is called the dimensional equation of the physical quantity. Thus, the dimensional equations are the equations, which represent the dimensions of a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities. For example, the dimensional equations of volume [V], speed [v], force [F ] and mass density [ρ] may be expressed as

[V] = [M0 L3 T0 ]

[v] = [M0 L T–1]

[F] = [M L T–2]

[ρ] = [M L–3 T0 ]

The dimensional equation can be obtained from the equation representing the relations between the physical quantities. The dimensional formulae of a large number and wide variety of physical quantities, derived from the equations representing the relationships among other physical quantities and expressed in terms of base quantities are given in Appendix 9 for your guidance and ready reference.

1.6 >DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

The recognition of concepts of dimensions, which guide the description of physical behaviour is of basic importance as only those physical 2024-25 8 PHYSICS ⊳ quantities can be added or subtracted which have the same dimensions. A thorough understanding of dimensional analysis helps us in deducing certain relations among different physical quantities and checking the derivation, accuracy and dimensional consistency or homogeneity of various mathematical expressions. When magnitudes of two or more physical quantities are multiplied, their units should be treated in the same manner as ordinary algebraic symbols. We can cancel identical units in the numerator and denominator. The same is true for dimensions of a physical quantity. Similarly, physical quantities represented by symbols on both sides of a mathematical equation must have the same dimensions.

2.1 > INTRODUCTION

2 > MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Motion is common to everything in the universe. We walk, run and ride a bicycle. Even when we are sleeping, air moves into and out of our lungs and blood flows in arteries and veins. We see leaves falling from trees and water flowing down a dam. Automobiles and planes carry people from one place to the other. The earth rotates once every twenty-four hours and revolves round the sun once in a year. The sun itself is in motion in the Milky Way, which is again moving within its local group of galaxies. Motion is change in position of an object with time. How does the position change with time ? In this chapter, we shall learn how to describe motion. For this, we develop the concepts of velocity and acceleration. We shall confine ourselves to the study of motion of objects along a straight line, also known as rectilinear motion. For the case of rectilinear motion with uniform acceleration, a set of simple equations can be obtained. Finally, to understand the relative nature of motion, we introduce the concept of relative velocity. In our discussions, we shall treat the objects in motion as point objects. This approximation is valid so far as the size of the object is much smaller than the distance it moves in a reasonable duration of time. In a good number of situations in real-life, the size of objects can be neglected and they can be considered as point-like objects without much error. In Kinematics, we study ways to describe motion without going into the causes of motion.

2.2 > INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY AND SPEED

The average velocity tells us how fast an object has been moving over a given time interval but does not tell us how fast it moves at different instants of time during that interval. For this, we define instantaneous velocity or simply velocity v at an instant t. The velocity at an instant is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the time interval ∆t becomes infinitesimally small. In other words,

v =

2.3 > ACCELERATION

The velocity of an object, in general, changes during its course of motion. How to describe this change? Should it be described as the rate of change in velocity with distance or with time ? This was a problem even in Galileo’s time. It was first thought that this change could be described by the rate of change of velocity with distance. But, through his studies of motion of freely falling objects and motion of objects on an inclined plane, Galileo concluded that the rate of change of velocity with time is a constant of motion for all objects in free fall. On the other hand, the change in velocity with distance is not constant – it decreases with the increasing distance of fall. This led to the concept of acceleration as the rate of change of velocity with time. The average acceleration a over a time interval is defined as the change of velocity divided by the time interval :

a = =

where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities or simply velocities at time t2 and t1 . It is the average change of velocity per unit time. The SI unit of acceleration is m s .

d x

d t

-

v2 - v1 ∆v

-

t2 - t1 ∆t

-2

_

2.4 > KINEMATIC EQUATIONS FOR UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

For uniformly accelerated motion, we can derive some simple equations that relate displacement (x), time taken (t), initial velocity (v0 ), final velocity (v) and acceleration (a). It gives a relation between final and initial velocities v and v0 of an object moving with uniform acceleration a :

v = v 0 + at

2.5 > RELATIVE VELOCITY

Relative velocity is the velocity of an object as observed from a particular reference frame, which may itself be in motion. It describes how fast and in what direction one object is moving relative to another object.

Formula for Relative Velocity

If two objects, A and B, have velocities and in the same frame of reference, the relative velocity of A with respect to B () is:

\vec{v}_{AB} = \vec{v}_A - \vec{v}_B

Similarly, the relative velocity of B with respect to A () is:

\vec{v}_{BA} = \vec{v}_B - \vec{v}_A

3> MOTION IN A PLANE

3.1 > INTRODUCTION

In the last chapter we developed the concepts of position, displacement, velocity and acceleration that are needed to describe the motion of an object along a straight line. We found that the directional aspect of these quantities can be taken care of by + and – signs, as in one dimension only two directions are possible. But in order to describe motion of an object in two dimensions (a plane) or three dimensions (space), we need to use vectors to describe the abovementioned physical quantities. Therefore, it is first necessary to learn the language of vectors. What is a vector ? How to add, subtract and multiply vectors ? What is the result of multiplying a vector by a real number ? We shall learn this to enable us to use vectors for defining velocity and acceleration in a plane. We then discuss motion of an object in a plane. As a simple case of motion in a plane, we shall discuss motion with constant acceleration and treat in detail the projectile motion. Circular motion is a familiar class of motion that has a special significance in daily-life situations. We shall discuss uniform circular motion in some detail. The equations developed in this chapter for motion in a plane can be easily extended to the case of three dimensions.

3.2 > SCALARS AND VECTORS

In physics, we can classify quantities as scalars or vectors. Basically, the difference is that a direction is associated with a vector but not with a scalar. A scalar quantity is a quantity with magnitude only.

A vector quantity is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction and obeys the triangle law of addition or equivalently the parallelogram law of addition. So, a vector is specified by giving its magnitude by a number and its direction. Some physical quantities that are represented by vectors are displacement, velocity, acceleration and force

3.3 > MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY REAL NUMBERS

Multiplying a vector A with a positive number λ gives a vector whose magnitude is changed by the factor λ but the direction is the same as that of A :

|λ A| = λ |A| if λ > 0.

For example, if A is multiplied by 2, the resultant vector 2A is in the same direction as A and has a magnitude twice of |A|

3.4 > ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS — GRAPHICAL METHOD

As mentioned in vectors, by definition, obey the triangle law or equivalently, the parallelogram law of addition. We shall now describe this law of addition using the graphical method. Let us consider two vectors A and B that lie in a plane . The lengths of the line segments representing these vectors are proportional to the magnitude of the vectors. To find the sum A + B, we place vector B so that its tail is at the head of the vector A. Then, we join the tail of A to the head of B. This line OQ represents a vector R, that is, the sum of the vectors A and B. Since, in this procedure of vector addition.

A + B = A + B

Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms of addition of vectors. We define the difference of two vectors A and B as the sum of two vectors A and –B :

A – B = A + (–B)

3.5 > RESOLUTION OF VECTORS

Let a and b be any two non-zero vectors in a plane with different directions and let A be another vector in the same plane . A can be expressed as a sum of two vectors — one obtained by multiplying a by a real number and the other obtained by multiplying b by another real number. To see this, let O and P be the tail and head of the vector A. Then, through O, draw a straight line parallel to a, and through P, a straight line parallel to b. Let them intersect at Q. Then, we have

A = OP = OQ + QP

But since OQ is parallel to a, and QP is parallel to b, we can write :

OQ = λ a, and QP = µ b

where λ and µ are real numbers. Therefore,

A = λ a + µ b

3.6 > VECTOR ADDITION – ANALYTICAL METHOD

Although the graphical method of adding vectors helps us in visualising the vectors and the resultant vector, it is sometimes tedious and has limited accuracy. It is much easier to add vectors by combining their respective components. Consider two vectors A and B in x-y plane with components Ax , Ay and Bx , By :

A = Ax i + Ay j

B = Bx i + By j

Vectors can be conveniently added using analytical method. If sum of two vectors A and B, that lie in x-y plane, is R, then :

R = Rx i + Ry j,

where,

Rx = Ax + Bx ,

and

Ry = Ay + By

^ ^

^ ^

^ ^

4 > LAWS OF MOTION

In the preceding Chapter, our concern was to describe the motion of a particle in space

quantitatively. We saw that uniform motion needs the concept of velocity alone whereas

non-uniform motion requires the concept of acceleration in addition. So far, we have not

asked the question as to what governs the motion of bodies. In this chapter, we turn to this

basic question. Let us first guess the answer based on our common experience. To move a

football at rest, someone must kick it. To throw a stone upwards, one has to give it an

upward push. A breeze causes the branches of a tree to swing; a strong wind can even move

heavy objects. A boat moves in a flowing river without anyone rowing it. Clearly, some

external agency is needed to provide force to move a body from rest. Likewise, an external

force is needed also to retard or stop motion. You can stop a ball rolling down an inclined

plane by applying a force against the direction of its motion. In these examples, the external

agency of force (hands,wind, stream, etc) is in contact with the object. This is not always

necessary. A stone released from the top of a building accelerates downward due to the

gravitational pull of the earth. A bar magnet can attract an iron nail from a distance.This

shows that external agencies (e.g. gravitational and magnetic forces ) can exert force on a

body even from a distance.

4.1 > INTRODUCTION

4.2 > ARISTOTLE’S FALLACY

The question posed above appears to be simple.However, it took ages to answer it. Indeed,

the correct answer to this question given by Galileo in the seventeenth century was the

foundation of Newtonian mechanics, which signalled the birth of modern science. The Greek

thinker, Aristotle (384 B.C– 322 B.C.), held the view that if a body is moving, something

external is required to keep it moving. According to this view, for example, an arrow shot

from a bow keeps flying since the air behind the arrow keeps pushing it. The view was part of

an elaborate framework of ideas developed by Aristotle on the motion of bodies in the

universe. Most of the Aristotelian ideas on motion are now known to be wrong and need not

concern us. For our purpose here, the Aristotelian law of motion may be phrased thus: An

external force is required to keep a body in motion. Aristotelian law of motion is flawed, as

we shall see. However, it is a natural view that anyone would hold from common experience.

Even a small child playing with a simple (non-electric) toy-car on a floor knows intuitively

that it needs to constantly drag the string attached to the toy- car with some force to keep it

going. If it releases the string, it comes to rest. This experience is common to most terrestrial

motion. External forces seem to be needed to keep bodies in motion. Left to themselves, all

bodies eventually come to rest. What is the flaw in Aristotle’s argument? The answer is: a

moving toy car comes to rest because the external force of friction on the car by the floor

opposes its motion. To counter this force, the child has to apply an external force on the car

in the direction of motion. When the car is in uniform motion, there is no net external force

acting on it: the force by the child cancels the force ( friction) by the floor. The corollary is: if

there were no friction, the child would not be required to apply any force to keep the toy car

in uniform motion. The opposing forces such as friction (solids) and viscous forces (for

fluids) are always present in the natural world. This explains why forces by external agencies

are necessary to overcome the frictional forces to keep bodies in uniform motion. Now we

understand where Aristotle went wrong. He coded this practical experience in the form of a

basic argument. To get at the 2024-25 true law of nature for forces and motion, one has

to imagine a world in which uniform motion is possible with no frictional forces opposing. This

is what Galileo did.

4.3 > THE LAW OF INERTIA

s what Galileo did.